Systems and methods for automatically identifying and linking names in digital resources

ABSTRACT

The present invention provides systems and methods for automatically identifying name-like-strings in digital resources, matching these name-like-string against a set of names held in an expertly curated database, and for those name-like-strings found in said database, enhancing the content by associating additional matter with the name, wherein said matter includes information about the names that is held within said database and pointers to other digital resources which include the same name and it synonyms.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No.61/143,986, filed Jan. 12, 2009, and U.S. Provisional Application No.61/184,187, filed Jun. 4, 2009, each of which is incorporated herein byreference in its entirety.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT

This invention was made with government support under STTR contractnumber DE-FG02-07ER86321 awarded by Department of Energy. The UnitedStates government has certain rights in the invention.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to systems and methods for automaticallyidentifying and tagging name-like-strings in digital resources.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Using biological entities as an example, it is known that the simple actof naming an entity, which is part of a large, complex classification ortaxonomic system, has potentially far-reaching and long-livedconsequences. For example, those names ascribed to organisms serve as aprimary entry point into the scientific, medical, and technicalliterature and figure prominently in countless laws and regulationsgoverning various aspects of commerce, public safety and public health.Biological names also serve as a primary entry point into many of thecentral databases that the scientific community and the general publicrely on. While legalistic Codes of Nomenclature exist that govern theformation, assignment, and usage of names to biological taxa, theprocess of biological classification is not governed by these Codes ofNomenclature. Taxonomies represent the scientific opinions of theindividuals who create them, and may be of varying quality orconsistency. Hence, legitimate and valid names may be ascribed topoorly-formed taxa and illegitimate and invalid names may be assigned towell-formed and/or correctly identified taxa. Moreover, biological namesare neither unique nor permanent. A single organism can bear multiplenames (synonyms) that represent differing taxonomic opinions that mayhave been rendered either in sequence or in parallel. Instances ofhomonymy also occur, in which a single name may refer to more than onegroup of organisms that are of markedly different evolutionary lineages(e.g. the genus name Bacillus applies to bacteria and insects).Orthographic variants may also occur, arising from correction ofnomenclatural errors.

Those whose work involves bacteria, from research scientists andclinicians to public officials and bioterrorism experts, face anever-growing list of names for everything from whole organisms toindividual genes, proteins, and sub-cellular components. While manybacteria are harmless and others can be beneficial, some are thecausative agents of potentially lethal diseases. Knowing which is whichrequires reasoned judgment and on-demand access to the correctinformation, information that is typically accessed using a scientificname. With rapid advances in knowledge of the depth and breadth ofbacterial diversity, the list of names not only grows, it also undergoesincremental re-definition on a daily basis.

While these additions and name changes are of considerable interest to arelatively small number of experts engrossed in bacterialclassification, they present a significant problem to both end-users andinformation providers, who must invest a significant and increasingeffort to make the connections between new names to names inpublications that predate any change. Failure to maintain name currencymay prevent scientists and non-scientists alike from tracking importantdevelopments in their field and may trigger inappropriate orlife-threatening responses.

Simply put, the continual rapid change in the nomenclature of bacteriahas outstripped the ability of most end-users, information providers,and device manufacturers to keep pace. What is needed is a bacterialname-lookup service that permits on-demand access to the correctinformation at the point of need, regardless of the name that is used.Ideally, that same service would provide a means of synchronizingupdates across the entire field, in the scientific literature anddatabases, in diagnostic instruments, and wherever else bacterial namesmust be resolved.

The disjunction between nomenclature and taxonomy leads to anaccumulation of dubious names in the literature and databases. Whileexperts in taxonomy and biological nomenclature may be able to recognizeand correctly interpret such circumstances, few others have therequisite skills to do so, resulting in frequent misapplication of namesand misinterpretation of the taxonomic record. From a practical, legal,or regulatory sense, either incorrect nomenclature or errors inclassification or identification can have significant and unintendedconsequences. For example, these errors may lead to the addition orremoval of biological species from lists of tightly-regulated organismssuch as those appearing on the CDC list of Restricted Select Agents,those governed by the USDA APHIS program, those covered by theEndangered Species Act, or those restricted by packaging and shippingregulations maintained by the USPS, DOT and various international bodiessuch as the International Airline Transport Association (IATA). The useof biological names as a means of information retrieval is not reliableas these names are neither unique nor persistent.

The present invention provides systems and methods for automaticallyenabling digital resources, based on an underlying informationarchitecture, as well as a means of accessing data related to thoseentities in a networked environment using persistent, globally uniqueidentifiers.

The invention enables efficient mining of enormous amounts of biologicalliterature and annotations relevant to a particular organism, even ifthe organism has undergone multiple taxonomic re-classifications andrenaming. This will prevent the introduction of errors related tosemantic inconsistencies as well as loss of information. The presentinvention “future-proofs” those products to which it is applied byproviding a method of persistently linking biological names or otherterms found in published content to the expertly managed informationabout the origins, definition, and current usage of those terms. Thepresent invention can also serve as a fine-grained marketing tool byestablishing persistent links between terms and related products forsale. The present invention provides services which assure contentproviders that their offerings will always be accessible to theirend-users and eliminate the burden and costs of tracking and managingrapidly changing biological terminologies.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In one embodiment the invention is a software method which includes astand-alone program that operates on prepublication materials, and inanother embodiment a browser-based extension that operates on thecontent of a web-page. The invention also includes methods forgenerating revenue based on the additional matter used to enhancedigital resources.

In another embodiment, the present invention provides systems andmethods for automatically identifying name-like-strings in digitalresources, matching these name-like-string against a set of names heldin an expertly curated database, and for those name-like-strings foundin said database, enhancing the content by associating additional matterwith the name, wherein said matter includes information about the namesthat is held within said database and pointers to other digitalresources which include the same name and its synonyms.

The invention allows rapid incorporation of changes to keep pace withadvances in the field. In one embodiment, the invention uses technologywhich includes an underlying structure for classifying types ofbiological data; persistent identifiers for each term; and a databasemodel based on the rules of biological nomenclature. In variousembodiments the invention uses Digital Object Identifiers (DOI®), whichguarantees that links are persistent, to act as surrogates for names andprovide a direct path to the most current name. Along with each name,the invention in certain embodiments stores both attributes and methodsassociated with the name. The attributes may include specificinformation that is important for identifying the object, such as thedate of discovery, the name of the discoverer, etc. The manner in whichthese objects are related to each other forms the basis for ensuringthat the meaning of the objects remains consistent over time. A list ofservices, many of which can be monetized, may also be associated withthe specific object. In the absence of the inventive technology andservices, content providers would either have to bear the costs ofupdating their publications or information products manually at regularintervals or else risk a rapid decay in their investment.

In some embodiments, the invention provides a method for adding a tag toa digital resource. The method comprises finding within said digitalresource at least one occurrence of a name-like-string, wherein saidname-like-string is contained within a database, and said databaserelates said name-like-string to other name-like-strings by means of ataxonomic structure based on rules of nomenclature, and said database isexpertly curated. A globally unique identifier is obtained from saiddatabase based upon said name-like-string. A tag comprising saididentifier is inserted into said digital resource. The method may beimplemented by a computer.

In this way, a plurality of related name-like-strings may be associatedwith a single globally unique identifier. As such, a plurality ofdigital resources including different, but related, name-like-stringsmaybe processed so that a common globally unique identifier is insertedinto each of the plurality of digital resources. Where, for example, asingle organism is identified using different name-like-strings indifferent resources, it is therefore possible to identify that thedifferent name-like-strings identify the same organism by insertion ofthe globally unique identifier in each of the digital resources.

A method for adding a tag to a digital resource. The method includesfinding within the digital resource at least one occurrence of aname-like-string, wherein the name-like-string is contained within adatabase. The database relates the name-like-string to othername-like-strings by means of a taxonomic structure based on rules ofnomenclature, where the database is expertly curated. The method alsoincludes obtaining from the database a globally unique identifier withthe name-like-string and modifying the digital resource by inserting atag with the identifier.

A method for adding content to a database of name-like-strings. Themethod includes finding within a digital resource at least oneoccurrence of a name-like-string, wherein the name-like-string is notcontained within the database. The database relates thename-like-strings to other name-like-strings by means of a taxonomicstructure based on rules of nomenclature, where the database is expertlycurated. The method also includes having an expert ensure that thename-like-string is in fact a valid name and creating a new recordwithin the database comprising the name-like-string, a contentidentifier, and named relations to other name-like-strings alreadywithin the database.

A method for providing information and services to End-Users fromdigital content having at least one content identifier embedded therein.The method includes accessing an expertly curated database which relatesname-like-strings to other name-like-strings by means of a taxonomicstructure based on rules of nomenclature and using the contentidentifier to obtain information about a related name-like-stringexisting in the digital content. The method also includes accessing adatabase which associates name-like-strings to services and informationand using the content identifier to obtain the services and informationabout the related name-like-string existing in the digital content. Themethod further includes displaying information and providing a means fora user to select from the information displayed.

A computer program product including a computer usable medium having acomputer readable program code embodied therein, where the computerreadable program code is adapted to be executed to implement a methodfor adding tags to a first digital resource. The method includescreating a second digital resource which includes the content of thefirst digital resource and finding within the second digital resource atleast one occurrence of a name-like-string, wherein the name-like-stringis contained within a database, the database relates thename-like-string to other name-like-strings by means of a taxonomicstructure based on rules of nomenclature, and the database is expertlycurated. The method also includes obtaining from the database for thename-like-string a globally unique identifier associated with the stringand inserting a tag with the identifier into the second digitalresource.

A computer program product including a computer usable medium having acomputer readable program code embodied therein, where the computerreadable program code is adapted to be executed to implement a methodfor adding a tag to a digital resource. The method includes findingwithin the digital resource at least one occurrence of aname-like-string, wherein the name-like-string is contained within adatabase, the database relates the name-like-string to othername-like-strings by means of a taxonomic structure based on rules ofnomenclature, and the database is expertly curated. The method alsoincludes obtaining from the database a globally unique identifieruniquely associated with the name-like-string and modifying the digitalresource by inserting a tag with the identifier.

A computer program product including a computer usable medium having acomputer readable program code embodied therein, the computer readableprogram code adapted to be executed to implement a method for addingcontent to a database of name-like-strings. The method includes findingwithin a digital resource at least one occurrence of a name-like-string,wherein the name-like-string is not contained within the database, thedatabase relates the name-like-strings to other name-like-strings bymeans of a taxonomic structure based on rules of nomenclature, and thedatabase is expertly curated. The method also includes having an expertensure that the name-like-string is in fact a valid name and creating anew record within the database comprising the name-like-string, acontent identifier, and named relations to other name-like-stringsalready within the database.

A computer program product including a computer usable medium having acomputer readable program code embodied therein, the computer readableprogram code adapted to be executed to implement a method for providinginformation and services to End-Users from digital content having atleast one content identifier embedded therein. The method includesaccessing an expertly curated database which relates name-like-stringsto other name-like-strings by means of a taxonomic structure based onrules of nomenclature and using the content identifier to obtaininformation about a related name-like-string existing in the digitalcontent. The method also includes accessing a database which associatesname-like-strings to services and information and using the contentidentifier to obtain the services and information about the relatedname-like-string existing in the digital content. The method furtherincludes displaying information and providing a means for a user toselect from the information displayed.

A method for building a graph relating digital resources. The methodincludes calculating a distance between two digital resources using amathematical formula that is based upon the number of occurrences of aname in each of the digital resources.

A method for tracking a number of occurrences of a name-like-string in adigital resource. The method includes counting a first number ofoccurrences of the name-like-string in a digital resource for a firsttime period, and calculating a first average and a first standarddeviation of the first number of occurrences for the first time period.

A method for generating a visualization of taxonomic data. The methodincludes obtaining a selected name object and an ordering basis from auser; searching a database for name objects related to the selected nameobject; retrieving one or more related name objects from the database;extracting time-based publication information for the selected nameobject and each of the one or more related name objects retrieved fromthe database; and determining a relative arrangement of the selectedname object and the one or more related name objects retrieved from thedatabase using the ordering basis obtained from the user, therebyproducing an ordered list of name objects. The method also includesgenerating a first output image comprising a graph, the graph includingthe selected name object and the one or more related name objectsretrieved from the database, the graph further including a time-basedaxis, such that each of the selected and related name objects isrepresented on the graph by a first visual indicator which depicts thetime-based publication information extracted for each respective nameobject; and presenting the first output image to the user.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The above, as well as other advantages of the present disclosure, willbecome readily apparent to those skilled in the art from the followingdetailed description, particularly when considered in the light of thedrawings described herein.

FIG. 1 shows the problem faced by End-Users without the benefit of thepresent invention.

FIG. 2 shows how the present invention mitigates the current problem byfacilitating access to other documents that contain verified referencesto a particular object.

FIG. 3 shows the business process by which the actionable servicesassociated with enhanced objects are employed.

FIG. 4 shows a network diagram with all relevant computers identified.

FIG. 5 shows how additional metadata may be requested from a server andbe displayed within the context of an enhanced document.

FIG. 6 is a view of a document as it exists prior to enhancement.

FIG. 7 is a view of the document enhanced with the presently describedinvention, where the name-like-strings have been made visually distinct.

FIG. 8 is a view of the document after an End-User has activated theevent handling code which is included within the enhancement of thedigital resource.

FIG. 9 shows the Workflow model for situations in which the originalcontent is read-only and which results in the production of a newenabled document. This process would typically be integrated into anexisting publication process.

FIG. 10 shows the Plug-in model for those situations where the digitalresource resides in memory and is enhanced without generating anentirely new document. This process would typically be implemented as anadd-on, extension, or plug-in for a web browser, document editor, orsimilar extensible application.

FIG. 11 shows the general process for enabling the content of a digitalresource.

FIG. 12 shows examples of name-like-strings as they might appear in adigital resource, and how these might be recognized as name-like-stringsbased on at least one of typographic, formatting, and stylisticconventions.

FIG. 13 shows an embodiment of a process for extracting name-likestrings from a digital resource.

FIG. 14 shows the process performed to verify that name-like-strings arein fact names.

FIG. 15 shows the a high-level overview of the database curationprocess.

FIG. 16 shows an example of a time-based visualization method.

FIG. 17 shows another example of a time-based visualization method.

FIG. 18 shows yet another example of a time-based visualization method.

FIG. 19 shows an example of a taxonomic-based visualization method at athe point in time indicated in FIG. 18.

FIG. 20 shows a flow chart of a method for creating a time-basedvisualization.

FIG. 21 shows a flow chart of a method for creating a taxonomic-basedvisualization.

FIG. 22 shows an example of building a graph to identify the relatednessof a set of digital resources.

FIG. 22A shows an example of six digital resources, each with names.

FIG. 22B shows the calculated distance between the example digitalresources.

FIG. 22C shows a network diagram of the example digital resources.

FIG. 23 shows a diagram of a computer that can be used to implementembodiments of the invention.

DEFINITIONS

To facilitate an understanding of the present invention, a number ofterms and phrases are defined below:

N4L refers to an application of an information architecture in someembodiments of the present invention that disambiguates scientific namesand taxonomic opinions, wherein ambiguity in the meaning and context ofscientific names and taxonomic opinions is resolved through theseparation and association of the following entity types: Name, Taxon,Nomos, Practitioner, and Exemplar. Relations between Names are resolvedthrough analysis of naming Events. A naming Event is a kind ofnomenclatural event (there are other kinds) that names a Taxon in agiven state, but not in perpetuity, and optionally modifies the statusof a name created in a previous event. Where a nomenclatural eventrefers directly or indirectly to a previous event, the event points tothe previous event and to corresponding entities. Referring eventsinclude but are not limited to: emended naming, the naming of a latersynonym that changes the synonym type of the name referred to, and allnon-naming events. Naming events may be used as the basis for the schemaof a database or an XML/SGML repository.

In the application, the entities are represented by means of persistent,uniquely identified, addressable, structured documents, referred to as“information objects.”

In the application, information objects are used in the construction ofnomenclatural and taxonomic “services.”

Information Objects:

An information object (also referred to as a N4L object) is a virtualrepresentation of an “entity”; it may comprise descriptive text,metadata, and data. Each information object is identified by apersistent, globally unique identifier and is directly addressable.Multiple persistent, globally unique identifiers can be employed toidentify an information object so long as each derives from separatefamily of identifiers, e.g., an information object may be identified byone DOI, one LSID, etc. One type of information object is a name object.

In various embodiments, N4L information objects are structured andinterlinked. It is therefore possible to build services based on presetqueries. Such services can retrieve and display information from N4Lobjects, and also use information drawn from N4L objects to link toother resources on the Internet.

Entity:

N4L entities are entities that exist in the physical or constructedworld.

A “Practitioner” is a scientist or other person who asserts a taxonomicopinion. In some embodiments, the information object or otherinformation associated with a Practitioner contains a reliability scorecomputed from other information objects that accounts for historicperformance of the Practitioner.

An “Exemplar” is a curated whole or partial organism, or arepresentation thereof.

A “Taxon” is a group of one or more Exemplars or a group of one or moresubordinate Taxa (plural form of Taxon) that are circumscribed by aPractitioner according to a Nomos. Exemplars and subordinate Taxa canbelong to more than one Taxon simultaneously, as long as the Taxa theybelong to are revealed by different Nomoi (plural form of Nomos).

A “Nomos” is a methodology (e.g. heuristics, algorithms or principles)used by a Practitioner to interpret data and to reveal and circumscribeTaxa. In one embodiment, an analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequencesimilarity forms the basis of a Nomos. In some embodiments,phylogenetic, phenotypic, genotypic, phenetic, genomic or polyphasicapproaches form the basis of multiple Nomoi. As sequence dataaccumulates for multiple loci, taxonomic methodologies will becomedifferentiated, and Nomoi will provide a means of formal distinction.

A “Name” is a record of an event, by means of a dated publication, inwhich a Practitioner circumscribes a Taxon. In one embodiment, a Name is‘new’, ‘emended’, ‘corrected’, ‘rejected’, ‘conserved’, or ‘combined’.Names have properties that can be modified by later events.

In one embodiment, “Name” refers to an archived bibliographic record,which links to two other objects: a Taxon object and a publicationobject. For an Emended Name or a New Combination, links are made both tothe current state of the Taxon and to the Taxon as it was when the namewas a ‘new’ Name. Once a Name is recorded, it will persist unchanged,aside from its synonym type.

A “name-like-string” refers to a noun or compound noun phrase that mayappear to a parser or a human as a reference to a biological orscientific name or concept. It may appear in special formatting, in fullor abbreviated form, and upon first usage points to a publisheddefinition of the concept and/or object to which the name applies.

An “Annotation” is a published comment, under strict editorial control,which can be added by a Practitioner, an End-User and/or a skilled N4Lcurator.

A “taxonomy” is a particular classification of objects arranged in ahierarchical structure. Taxonomies are generally organized bysupertype-subtype relationships, wherein by definition the subtype(child) has the same properties as the supertype (parent) plus one ormore additional properties. Objects at the same level of the taxonomichierarchy can be said to have the same “taxonomic rank”.

One skilled in the art will recognize that biological exemplars, taxa,and names represent but one instance of a taxonomy of objects related bynomoi. The present invention applies equally to all other sets ofexemplars, taxa, and names related by nomoi wherein said nomoi areprescribed and the relationship among the entities is maintainedexpertly.

Services:

Since N4L objects are directly addressable, they can be visited like anyother web page. Information objects, and services derived from them, canbe accessed from within other “digital resources” and provided in humanreadable form, machine readable form, or both.

In some embodiments, services are implemented using standard technology,including DOI (Digital Object Identifier, a proprietary form of Handleresolution services deployed by the Publishers Interlinking Association(PILA) under the governance of the International DOI Foundation (IDF))multiple resolution in one embodiment, and web services in otherembodiments. In yet another embodiment, resolution of a persistentidentifier to services results in the rendering of graphical objects inthe user interface, enabling the user to select and execute the chosenservice. Graphical objects include text-based dropdown menus and pop-upwindows, and interactive graphs (e.g., 2D, 3D, and multi-dimensionalplots, tree graphs) containing active regions that respond to userbehavior (e.g., the rollover of a mouse) by offering or executingservices.

N4L services enable prospective survey of Names, Taxa, and Exemplars: areference to an N4L object enables the retrieval not only of informationthat was current when the reference was made, but also of informationupdates made since then. N4L services consider a Name to be a formalreference to an archived event in the time continuum, and therefore tobe an index to all related events.

N4L services enable detailed comparative analysis. The reification ofNomos as an object distinct from the Taxa it reveals, forces theseparation of partially or completely overlapping taxa that arise fromthe application of different taxonomic methods, thereby clarifyingdiffering taxonomic opinions. Revision of an existing Taxon as a resultof new data is distinct from assertion of a Taxon that is different froman existing one, though overlapping. The former case is a comparison oftwo states of the same Taxon. The latter case is a comparison of twoheteronomic Taxa (which we define as overlapping Taxa from differentNomoi). Tools for taxonomic comparison (e.g., those provided by thepresent invention) become increasingly important as taxonomicmethodology increases in complexity and becomes more differentiated.

N4L services are provided by computer programs, or extensions, whichaccess the N4L database and/or the N4L-CI (contextual index) database.The N4L database maintains the relationship between the informationobjects, i.e., it is the instantiation of the taxonomic record. TheN4L-CI database provides a many-to-many relationship among theinformation objects and the digital resources in which they appear,along with other metadata.

Digital Resource

A digital resource is any computer-storable item of textual, data,graphical, or multimedia content, such as STM (scientific, technical andmedical) literature, patents, BRC (Biological Resource Center)databases, legal literature, diagnostic machinery databases, contracts,treaties, material transfer agreements, prior informed consentagreements, certificates of origin, other documents establishingprovenance, bills of lading, shipping documents, specification sheets,regulations or laws as applied to holding, transportation, or workingwith an organism, and microarrays/underlying databases which areprovided by publishers, culture collections, herbaria, museums,biological databases, governments, NGOs (Non-Governmental Organizations)and others. A digital resource may include encoded text, e.g. in ASCIIformat, in which case the text may be analyzed directly for occurrencesof name-like-strings. In other instances, a digital resource may includeimages containing text, in which case the text data may have to beextracted from the images as an initial step, for example using opticalcharacter recognition (OCR), before the text can be analyzed foroccurrences of name-like-strings.

Collection Description

Biological taxonomies are grounded in the typological concept. For eachformally named taxon, there exists one or more Exemplars. In instancesin which multiple Exemplars exist, one Exemplar is designated the type,the holotype, or the lectotype, and it serves as the principal referenceobject against which Practitioners make their comparisons. Exemplars areheld in various collections and said collections may be housed inmuseums, herbaria, botanical or zoological gardens, academicinstitutions, culture collections or biological resource centers. Theform of Exemplars is governed by the different Codes of Nomenclature,varies by discipline and may be either preserved or living, wholeorganisms, parts of whole organisms or pictorial or writtenrepresentations. Sequences of one or more genes or entire genomes ofExemplars may serve as supporting data and may, in the future,constitute an alternative form. Each Exemplar (type specimen) isuniquely identified with one or more collection identifiers (e.g.,accession number) as well as by those identifiers ascribed to thematerial by the Practitioner, prior to deposit in the saidcollection(s). The citation of these identifiers in formal taxonomicdescriptions is governed by the applicable Code and provides a means bywhich Practitioners may locate and retrieve Exemplars.

In the N4L model, Exemplars are aggregating objects that containinformation about organisms, especially those from which biologicalmaterial is curated; for example the type or a non-type strain/specimenand associated data and services specific to that strain/specimen.Exemplars are assigned a unique and persistent identifier. Where thesame organism is deposited in multiple collections, by means of cloning,serial passage or segmentation, references to those multiple depositsare held in a single Exemplar object. Exemplars are information objectsthat record their relationships with each other, with N4L informationobjects of other classes (e.g., Name, Taxon) and with other informationresources. Referencing deposits and data by means of N4L Exemplarsalleviates much of the current ambiguity associated with determiningequivalency and availability of such materials

Globally Unique Identifiers and Resolution Systems

A ‘globally unique identifier’ is a type of identifier used in softwareapplications to provide a reference which is guaranteed to be unique inany context. One method for producing these identifiers has beenstandardized by the Open Software Foundation (OSF) and documented aspart of ISO/IEC 11578:1996 “Information technology—Open SystemsInterconnection—Remote Procedure Call (RPC)” and more recently in ITU-TRec. X.667|ISO/IEC 9834-8:2005. This standard refers to the identifiersas Universally Unique Identifiers (UUIDs). A common implementation ofthis standard has been promulgated by Microsoft, which refers to theseidentifiers as Globally Unique Identifiers (GUIDs).

While globally unique identifiers work well within the context of acomputer, or even a network of computers, it has been recognized thatthere needed to be implemented methods which ensure that the objectpointed to by such an identifier always resolves to the object beingidentified. This need led to the creation of ‘persistent identifiers’,globally unique identifiers provided by an organization which guaranteesthat the identifier will resolve to the object identified in perpetuity.This guarantee has two components—a ‘social’ contract and a resolutionsystem.

In the scientific, informatics, and publishing communities, resolutionsoftware and services are used to provide persistent access to(especially) distributed resources. Resolution systems that find use inan embodiment of N4L are typically Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs),and include Handles and Uniform Resource Names (URNs). Digital ObjectIdentifiers (DOI), which are an implementation of Handle, and LifeScience Identifiers (LSID), which are an implementation of URN, are bothgood examples. Archival Resource Keys (ARK) and Persistent UniformResource Locators (PURL) are other resolution systems. More than onetype of persistent identifier/resolution system could be used in animplementation of a N4L application, depending on the needs of thecommunity that is making use of the entities represented by theinformation objects.

General Definitions

As used herein, the terms “processor” and “central processing unit” or“CPU” are used interchangeably and refer to a device that is able toread a program from a computer memory (e.g., ROM or other computermemory) and perform a set of steps according to the program.

As used herein, the terms “computer memory” and “computer memory device”refer to any storage medium readable by a computer processor. Examplesof computer memory include, but are not limited to, RAM, ROM, computerchips, digital video discs (DVD), compact discs (CDs), hard disk drives(HDD), and magnetic tape.

As used herein, the term “computer readable medium” refers to any deviceor system for storing and providing information (e.g., data andinstructions) to a computer processor. Examples of computer readablemedia include, but are not limited to, DVDs, CDs, hard disk drives,magnetic tape and servers for streaming media over networks. In variousembodiments, aspects of the present invention including data structuresand methods may be stored on a computer readable medium.

As used herein, the term “encode” refers to the process of convertingone type of information or signal into a different type of informationor signal to, for example, facilitate the transmission and/orinterpretability of the information or signal. For example, image filescan be converted into (i.e., encoded by) electrical or digitalinformation. Likewise, light patterns can be converted into electricalor digital information that provides an encoded video capture of thelight patterns.

As used herein, the term “N4L enhancement” refers to metadata embeddedwithin a digital resource which responds to a user-initiated behavior ina predictable manner. For example, when a hyperlink in a HTML documentis selected by a user's mouse, the web browser loads the pagereferenced. More sophisticated behaviors can occur with the use of, forexample, a JavaScript event model.

As used herein, the term “internet” refers to any collection of networksusing standard protocols. For example, the term includes a collection ofinterconnected (public and/or private) networks that are linked togetherby a set of standard protocols (such as TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP) to form aglobal, distributed network. While this term is intended to refer towhat is now commonly known as the Internet, it is also intended toencompass variations that may be made in the future, including changesand additions to existing standard protocols or integration with othermedia (e.g., television, radio, etc). The term is also intended toencompass non-public networks such as private (e.g., corporate)intranets and the private military internets.

As used herein, the terms “World Wide Web” or “web” refer generally toboth (i) a distributed collection of interlinked, user-viewablehypertext documents (commonly referred to as Web documents or Web pages)that are accessible via the Internet, and (ii) the client and serversoftware components which provide user access to such documents usingstandardized Internet protocols. Currently, the primary standardprotocol for allowing applications to locate and acquire Web documentsis HTTP, and the Web pages are encoded using HTML. However, the terms“Web” and “World Wide Web” are intended to encompass future markuplanguages and transport protocols that may be used in place of (or inaddition to) HTML and HTTP.

As used herein, the term “web site” refers to a computer system thatdelivers content and services over a network using the standardprotocols of the World Wide Web. Typically, a Web site corresponds to aparticular Internet domain name and includes the content associated witha particular organization. As used herein, the term is generallyintended to encompass both (i) the hardware/software server componentsthat delivers the content and services over the network, and (ii) the“back end” hardware/software components, including any non-standard orspecialized components, that interact with the server components toperform services for web site users and the tools used by said web siteusers.

As used herein, the term “HTML” refers to Hyper-Text Markup Languagethat is a standard coding convention and set of codes for attachingpresentation and linking attributes to informational content withindocuments. During a document authoring stage, the HTML codes (referredto as “tags”) are embedded within the informational content of thedocument. When the Web document (or HTML document) is subsequentlytransferred from a Web server to a browser, the codes are interpreted bythe browser and used to parse and display the document. Additionally, inspecifying how the Web browser is to display the document, HTML tags canbe used to create links to other Web documents (commonly referred to as“hyperlinks”).

As used herein, the term “HTTP” refers to Hyper-Text Transport Protocolthat is the standard World Wide Web client-server protocol used for theexchange of information (such as HTML documents, and client requests forsuch documents) between a browser and a Web server. HTTP includes anumber of different types of messages that can be sent from the clientto the server to request different types of server actions. For example,a “GET” message, which has the format GET, causes the server to returnthe document or file located at the specified URL.

As used herein, the term “URL” refers to Uniform Resource Locator thatis a unique address that fully specifies the location of a file or otherresource on the Internet. The general format of a URL isprotocol://machine address:port/path/filename. The port specification isoptional, and if none is entered by the user, the browser defaults tothe standard port for whatever service is specified as the protocol. Forexample, if HTTP is specified as the protocol, the browser will use theHTTP default port of 80.

As used herein, the term “in electronic communication” refers toelectrical devices (e.g., computers, processors, etc.) that areconfigured to communicate with one another through direct or indirectsignaling. For example, a conference bridge that is connected to aprocessor through a cable or wire, such that information can passbetween the conference bridge and the processor, are in electroniccommunication with one another. Likewise, a computer configured totransmit (e.g., through cables, wires, infrared signals, telephonelines, etc.) information to another computer or device, is in electroniccommunication with the other computer or device.

As used herein, the term “web service” is a software system designed tosupport interoperable machine-to-machine interaction over a network. Aspecific web service would consist of an Application ProgrammingInterface (API) that may be invoked from a client system to retrievedata or execute a process on a remote system.

As used herein, the term “transmitting” refers to the movement ofinformation (e.g., data) from one location to another (e.g., from onedevice to another) using any suitable means.

A “tag” is a way of electronically marking content to associate it withadditional information and metadata, or to impose a specific structureon the specific content to make it distinct from the surroundingcontent. Examples of tags include XML and HTML elements. One type of tagis a metadata tag.

As used herein, “metadata” refers to descriptive data about data of anytype. Metadata may describe a single datum or entire collections ofsimilar data. It provides context for data and additional information tothe user, and may associate one piece of data with another piece of databased on properties shared in common. Metadata often refers to thestructure (also referred to as the schema) of a database or of adocument encoded in XML or SGML. In one embodiment, metadata refers tothe description of the types of data contained in Name, Taxon, Exemplar,Nomos and Practitioner information objects and other types of structureddata that may be linked to such information objects.

As used herein, the term “XML” refers to Extensible Markup Language, anapplication profile that, like HTML, is based on SGML (StandardGeneralized Markup Language). XML differs from HTML in that: informationproviders can define new tag and attribute names at will; documentstructures can be nested to any level of complexity; any XML documentcan contain an optional description of its grammar for use byapplications that need to perform structural validation. XML documentsare made up of storage units called elements which contain either parsedor unparsed data. Parsed data is made up of characters, some of whichform character data, and some of which form markup. Markup encodes adescription of the document's storage layout and logical structure. XMLprovides a mechanism to impose constraints on the storage layout andlogical structure, to define constraints on the logical structure and tosupport the use of predefined storage units. A software module called anXML processor is used to read XML documents and provide access to theircontent and structure.

As used herein, the term “interactive graphic”, refers to a digitizedimage representing the relationship(s) among two or more independent anddependent variables in which the labels are available for processing byan N4L application or can directly link to N4L information objectsdirectly. In one embodiment, such interactive graphics include, but arenot limited to heatmaps, phylogenetic trees, scatter plots, linedrawings or other figures that use names or other labels that refer toorganisms or features of organisms that may be stored in Name, Taxon, orExemplar objects.

As used herein, the term “extension” refers to an auxiliary computerprogram that interacts with a host application to provide extended,specific capability. There exist a very large number of extensible hostapplications, including web-browser applications, such as MicrosoftInternet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox; document viewing programs, suchas Adobe Acrobat; and document creation programs, such as MicrosoftWord. Extensions for these programs are typically written in ahigh-level programming language using a defined Application ProgrammingInterface. Though subtly distinct in actual application, as used herein,the term “plug-in” is used synonymously with “extension” and “add-on”.

As used herein, the term “string” refers to a sequence of characters,wherein the characters may be encoded using any recognized codingscheme, such as ASCII, Unicode, etc.

As used herein, the term “expertly curated database” refers to arepository of domain-specific information that is maintained under theguidance of one or more individuals having acknowledged expertise in aparticular field who are capable of ensuring the accuracy and integrityof the information stored within said repository. In one instance, anexpertly curated database on the nomenclature of Bacteria and Archaea isone that is maintained under the guidance of one or more acknowledgedexperts who are familiar with the appropriate codes of nomenclature thatgovern the formation and application of biological names and are capableof ensuring that the links among Names, Taxa, Exemplars, Nomi,Practitioners and the taxonomic literature in which nomenclatural eventsoccur.

As used herein, “expert curation” is the process of maintaining theintegrity and accuracy of a database or other knowledge resource by anacknowledged domain expert. In one instance, expert curation refers tothe maintenance of a database or knowledge store of biological names byan acknowledged expert in the field of biological nomenclature. In oneembodiment, an expert in the field of biological nomenclature is someonewho holds a post-graduate degree in biology. In another embodiment, anexpert in the field of biological nomenclature is someone who holds apost-graduate degree in the biological sciences and specializes insystemic biology. In yet another embodiment, an expert in the field ofbiological nomenclature is someone who has authored or co-authored atleast one publication in the field of biological nomenclature.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The following description is merely exemplary in nature and is notintended to limit the present disclosure, application, or uses. Itshould also be understood that throughout the drawings, correspondingreference numerals indicate like or corresponding parts and features. Inrespect of the methods disclosed, the order of the steps presented isexemplary in nature, and thus, is not necessary or critical. Inaddition, while much of the present invention is illustrated usingbiological taxonomy examples, the present invention is not limited tothese embodiments.

The present invention provides systems and methods for automaticallyidentifying name-like-strings in digital resources, matching thesename-like-strings against a set of names held in an expertly curateddatabase, and for those name-like-strings found in said database,enabling said resource by associating a globally unique identifier withsaid name, wherein said globally unique identifier can be used toretrieve additional matter, such as information about the name that isheld within said database and pointers to other digitally accessibleresources which include the same name or synonyms thereof, about saidname.

The value of the invention is clearly demonstrated by FIG. 1 whichhighlights the difficulty experienced by an End-User without theadvantage of the presently described invention. An End-User using acomputer 16 is interested in learning about some named organism 36,which is referenced in a journal article 34. The journal article 34 isweb-accessible since it resides on a web server 32. Finding the journalarticle 34 potentially requires a significant amount of effort on behalfof the End-User. Similarly, a reference to the same organism 42, thoughquite possibly with a different, but synonymous name, exists in anotherjournal article 40 which is web-accessible via a web server 38. Whilemechanisms using bibliographic referencing exist for linking the journalarticle 40 to the journal article 34, these mechanisms do not guaranteethat the mention of the organism of interest appears in the journalarticle 40. Furthermore, if the journal articles are not linked viabibliographic reference, a similar degree of effort that was needed tolocate the journal article 34 is needed to locate the journal article40.

FIG. 2 demonstrates the value of the presently disclosed invention.Display of the journal article 34 can be enhanced with a browser plug-inas described below. During the course of processing the journal article34, the plug-in queries a N4L-CI server 14 which returns the location ofthe organism's name 42 in the journal article 40. The N4L enhancementprovides a direct link 44 from an instance of the organism's name in thejournal article 34 to an instance of the same name 42 in the journalarticle 40. Thus, the amount of time needed to locate successivereferences to the organism of interest is reduced to essentially zero.It is noted that in the context, the phrase “same name” also means anyother name or label that is known to denote an entity for which the N4Ldatabase records a relation with the organism that is the focus ofresearch. The N4L database uses the expertly curated taxonomic structurepreviously disclosed by Garrity et al. (US Pat. Appl. Publ. No.2005/0160059), incorporated by reference herein.

It should be apparent that the linking of journal articles representsbut one form of digital resources that may be enhanced by the currentinvention. In addition to STM literature, patents, BRC databases, legalliterature, diagnostic machinery databases, contracts, treaties,material transfer agreements, prior informed consent, certificates oforigin, other documents establishing provenance, bills of lading,shipping documents, specification sheets, and microarrays/underlyingdatabases which are provided by publishers, culture collections,herbaria, museums, biological databases, governments, NGOs and others,can all benefit from enhancement with the presently-described invention.

Embodiments of the invention are described in the following non-limitingexamples:

Example 1 Shipping of Biological Materials

The Regulations Relevant to the shipping of biological materials arebased on the name of the material being transported. The regulations areformulated based on the nature of the material—those that are deemedhazardous require additional protections, certifications, etc., whentransported from one location to another. Since this system is based onnames, at least two types of system failures are possible. In a firstfailure case, the name of a hazardous material could be changed suchthat the new name is no longer contained within the list of hazardousmaterials. In this case, insufficient precautions would be taken whenshipping the material, thus potentially putting peoples' lives at risk.In a second failure case, the name of a benign material could be changedsuch that the new name is within the list of hazardous materials. Inthis case, extraordinary precautions would be taken when shipping thematerial, thus placing unnecessary financial burden on the shipper. Inboth cases, were the name in the regulation enhanced as describedherein, the regulation would be made independent of changes to thematerial's name, thus the regulations would forever dictate correcthandling methods.

Example 2 Patent Searching

The number of patents which reference biological names is quite large.For example, 375,000 US patents issued between 1976 and 2007 were foundto contain names of bacteria. For inventors, patent attorneys, andpatent examiners, being able to quickly determine if a potentialinfringement exists is vitally important. However, given the rate atwhich names change, this becomes an onerous task. With the use of thepresently described invention, that which was onerous becomes trivial.All other patents which include mention of an organism can be instantlyidentified regardless of the name changes that may have occurredsubsequent to the publication of the patent.

FIG. 3 shows how a N4L application provides a means for generatingrevenue. The N4L Database Maintainer has three primary functions: tomaintain the core taxonomic database (N4L), to maintain the contextualindex database (N4L-CI), and to provide tools for enhancing digitalresources.

Content Providers are typified by organizations which produce articles,patents, regulations, etc. These organizations can use the softwaretools developed in accordance with the present invention to createenabled digital resources prior to their publication (described indetail below). Using the present invention, the process of enabling adigital resource makes it more valuable because it ensures persistentaccess to proper names, reduces the level of effort needed to validate adigital resource prior to its publication, finds errors in a digitalresource, and facilitates the finding of additional digital resources.After enablement, Content Providers make their content available toEnd-Users, for example on a fee-per-use basis.

Service Providers are typified by organizations which provide livingmatter, diagnoses based on sample inspection, shipping services, etc.These organizations acquire tools from NamesforLife and use these toolsto enable digital resources prior to their usage (described in detailbelow). Using the present invention, the process of enabling a digitalresource makes it more valuable because it ensures persistent access toproper names, ensures compliance with changing regulations, and providesan easy means for End-Users to be aware of relevant products andservices. After enablement, the products and services offered by theService Providers are more easily found by End-Users, therebypotentially increasing the sales of these products and services.

An End-User is an individual or organization who accesses digitalresources from Content Providers and/or uses products and servicesoffered by Service Providers. When accessing previously enabled digitalresources or when the digital resource is enabled on-the-fly (describedin detail below), software on the End-User's computer enhances thedigital resource by providing a menu of information and/or actionableservices associated with each recognized name-like-string in the digitalresource. Due to the value of the information provided and/or due to thesavings in effort inherent with the use of the presently describedinvention, the End-User will be willing to pay to use these services.

The following discussion shows how one embodiment of the presentlydescribed invention may be implemented.

FIG. 4 depicts a network architecture with relevant computersidentified. The computer 16 provides access to networked resources foran End-User. The End-User, working at a computer 16, accesses certaininformation residing on a web server 10, typically using a web browser.The present invention requires the use of a software program, typicallyembodied as a N4L plug-in for said web-browser.

A N4L Server 12 contains an expertly curated database which relatesinformation objects to each other based on taxonomic structures whichadhere to rules of nomenclature. The N4L-CI Server 14 includes adatabase that records a many-to-many relationship between informationobjects and the digital resources in which they are referenced. Theserecords may also include additional metadata, for example, the number oftimes the name (i.e., reference to an information object) occurs withinthe digital resource. The N4L Server 12 and The N4L-CI Server 14 mayoptionally be the same computer and may optionally be connected to thesame local area network.

The functionality embodied in the N4L plug-in is shown in the method 500outlined in FIG. 5. The method 500 begins at start 505. Initially, thedigital resource (e.g. web page document) is examined to determine if ithas been previously enabled 510. One method for so doing is to check forthe existence of a META tag created during the publisher workflowprocess. A page is said to be enabled if the name-like-strings withinthe page have associated with them persistent identifiers which providelinks to information objects and additional services.

If the digital resource has not been previously enabled, documentcontent enablement 515 (described below in detail) occurs on-the-fly.Once the resource is enabled, enhancement occurs. The plug-in can embodythe enhancement in at least one of three manners: it may a prioriretrieve metadata for all persistent identifiers in the digitalresource, it may retrieve metadata on demand when the user selects aname-like-string for which there is an associated persistent identifier,or it may use a combination of the above methods.

The following steps are performed in a loop for each of the name objectmetadata requested 520, after which the loop ends 540 and the method 500ends 545. The persistent identifier is used to make a query 525 againstthe N4L database 12. This query returns an actionable code snippet,typically written in JavaScript, which provides N4L enhancement of thename-like-string. Said N4L enhancement may, for example, when chosen bythe End-User, result in the display of the chronology of name changesfor an organism.

Next, the persistent identifier is used to make a query 530 against theN4L-CI database 14. This query returns an additional actionable codesnippet and/or document fragment, typically written in JavaScript, whichidentifies other digital resources or digital records of non-digitalresources in which the same name-like-string or other name-like-stringswhich resolve to the same Exemplar appear. The code snippet returnedfrom the N4L-CI server 14 is combined with the code snippet returnedfrom the N4L server 12, resulting in a single code snippet. This codesnippet is then associated 535 with the name-like-string in thedocument.

An example of how this N4L enhancement appears to the End-User is shownin FIGS. 6-8. FIG. 6 shows a page from an online resource that has notbeen enhanced. FIG. 7 shows the same page, after the N4L enhancementcode snippet has been added to the resource, resulting inname-like-strings being made visually distinct without interfering withthe general presentation of the document. FIG. 8 shows a dynamic pop-upmenu activated by the End-User's mouse-over of the N4L enhanced content.Each of the menu items shown is actionable; the selection of any menuitem results in some specific action.

The shading of the items in the menu is significant. In this example,the unshaded menu items are those which are offered for free to theEnd-User. For example, by selecting the menu item ‘Taxonomic tree’, anew browser window showing the relationship of the selected organism toother organisms will be displayed. Selecting the ‘Related materials’link will require that the End-User pay a fee for accessing theinformation. The information could include other articles, patents,etc., in which the same name is used.

In another embodiment, an N4L persistent identifier, particularly of thetype Digital Object Identifier (DOI), resolves to a DOI/Handle recordcontaining multiple data fields, each of a typed value, where the valuetype (e.g., URL, string) is known in advance by software built on theN4L model. The application then constructs graphical objects for theuser to manipulate, for example menu structures. Resolution to thevalues in the Handle record allow the graphical objects to be populated,for example as items in a menu.

For different classes of N4L object, e.g., Name, or Exemplar, valuetypes may vary. For example, one value type for Name might be anenumerated value from ‘current’ or ‘deprecated’. A value type forExemplar might be an integer representing the number of names it hasbeen classified with. The schema of value types for a class of object isbound to its DOI application profile. By this means, N4L resolutionservices are registered with the International DOI Foundation and theApplication Programming Interface (API) for building resolved contentinto tools and services is formally managed.

Two processes for enabling digital resources are described, althoughother processes are also possible. The first is the Workflow model forsituations in which the original digital resource is read-only and whichresults in the production of a new enabled document, and the second isthe Plug-in model for those situations where the digital resourceresides in memory and is enabled without generating an entirely newdocument. Two approaches for the Plug-in model are described.

FIG. 9 provides a flowchart 900 showing the process steps for theWorkflow model, where the flowchart 900 starts at 905 and stops at 950.This is referred to as the Workflow model as this processing istypically performed by Content Creators in an off-line manner. In thiscase, the Content Creator has an original document to be enabled by thepresently described invention. The output of the enablement is a newdocument, distinct from the first, which is then possibly subjected toadditional process steps prior to publication. Note that the output isnot necessarily web content, i.e., HTML. Instead, the output can be XML,or any other document format, which could then be subjected toadditional processing steps. The information embedded by the N4L programis encapsulated in such a manner that it remains intact throughout thesuccessive processing steps.

The process for the Workflow model may be implemented as a standaloneprogram, as a client to a hosted service (such as a web service), or viaan extension to an existing application such as a web browser ordocument editor (such as Microsoft Word or XML Spy).

Following the start 905, the first step is to determine if the contenthas already been N4L-enabled 910. The next step is to identify allname-like-strings in the document (content), as described below, and foreach instance perform step 920 and either step 925 or step 930 in a loop915, until all instances have been analyzed, when the loop ends 940. Anyof a plurality of methods for identifying name-like-strings may beemployed, including, for example, identification based on typographicconvention, parsing the document for strings formatted in a particularmanner and/or occurring in specific relations to other strings, andidentification based on a lookup table of known names. This process canbe performed by the program which implements the Workflow process, by aN4L server, or by some combination of the two. The process may searchthe graphical as well as the textual portion of the content to findname-like-strings. The outcome of this process is a determination ofwhether or not each name-like string is in the database 920.

For those cases in which the name-like-string is found in the database,the unique persistent identifier associated with said name is returned(i.e. the name object identifier is retrieved from the N4L server) 925and is inserted into the document being processed by associating it withthe name-like-string. For example, this can be accomplished with a XMLmetadata object that includes the name-like-string and the persistentidentifier. In addition, the name and its inclusion in the digitalresource is recorded in the N4L-CI database 14.

For those cases in which the name-like-string is not found in thedatabase, the Content Creator will be made aware of this fact (i.e. thename is flagged for analysis) 930, providing the opportunity for one ofseveral actions in response to this situation.

A first action is to provide a list of names that are similar to thename-like-string, i.e., it is assumed that there is a typographicalerror. The list is presented to the Content Provider, who is offered theopportunity to correct the error by selecting the correct name from thislist. The selected name is recorded, the document is updated, and theinformation is stored in the N4L-CI database 14.

A second action is for the Content Creator to ask the document's authorfor clarification. The author's response would dictate the necessarychanges to the document, for example, if the name is not validlypublished, it would be reformatted as a quoted string.

A third action applies to a selected subset of publishers, those whosepublications are the ones in which new names are first validlypublished. Within these publications, there will exist sentences whosesyntax indicates that an unrecognized name-like-string is the definitionof a new name. In these cases, the tool would provide the publisher themeans to notify the curator of the N4L database of the new name, therebyproviding a means for the N4L database to be updated to include the newname. This notification process may involve human intervention, may behandled programmatically, or some combination of the two.

One of the outcomes from this process may be the identification oferrors in the original document. While human readers are quite tolerantand forgiving of errors, machines are not. Given the vast amount ofinformation being produced, more and more digital resources are beingread and digested by machines. By being able to identify and fix errorsprior to publication of an article, the value of the digital resource isgreatly increased in that it can now be accurately read by a machinereader. This will lead to an improvement in the factors used to quantifythe quality/importance of an article, thereby increasing its value tothe publisher.

Once a document has been enabled 945 during production by theassociation in the text of names with N4L identifiers, its metadata isupdated to record that this process has taken place, for example in aMETA element.

FIG. 10 provides a flowchart 1000 showing the process steps for thePlug-in model, the flowchart 1000 starting at 1005 and stopping at 1050.This is referred to as the Plug-in model as this processing is typicallyperformed on a digital resource via an add-on to an existingapplication. In this case, the process user has an original document tobe enabled by the presently described invention. The processing is donein-memory, thus the output of the enablement is a modification of theoriginal document and is typically not stored for future use.

The process for the Plug-in model, which runs on End-User computer 16,is typically implemented as a browser extension, although it can also beimplemented as an add-on to any other program which is used to view oredit digital resources. It could also be a stand-alone program which canaccess network-accessible digital resources.

The first step is to determine if the document has already beenN4L-enabled 1010. One manner in which this can be done is to look forthe existence of a META tag in the document header that was producedprior to publication by the Workflow model process. In this case, nofurther processing is required. Another is to determine if the documenthas been previously processed via the Plug-in model and stored in theN4L-CI database 14. In this case, the N4L-enabled document may bereturned from the N4L-CI database 14 to replace the current workingversion of the document.

The next step is to identify all name-like-strings in the page, asdescribed below, and for each instance to loop through one or more ofsteps 1020, 1025, 1030, and 1035, until all instances have beenanalyzed, when the loop ends at 1040. Any of a plurality of methods foridentifying name-like-strings may be employed, including, for example,identification based on typographic convention, parsing the document forstrings formatted in a particular manner and/or occurring in specificrelations to other strings, and identification based on a lookup tableof known names. This process can be performed by the program whichimplements either the (1) Workflow or Plug-in model process, (2) by aN4L server, or (3) by some combination of the two. The process maysearch the graphical as well as the textual portion of the content tofind name-like-strings. In the case where some part of this process isperformed by the server, the plug-in can optionally send thename-like-strings to the server individually; it can combine all of thename-like-strings into a single document and send it to the server; orit can send the entire original document to the server. In the lattercase, the server then has the ability to store the document in apre-processed form as described above. The outcome of this process is adetermination of whether or not each name-like string is in the database1020.

For those cases in which the name-like-string is found in the database,the unique persistent identifier associated with said name is returned(i.e. the name object identifier is looked up and returned from the N4Lserver) 1025 and is inserted into the document being processed byassociating it with the name-like-string (i.e. the document content isenabled) 1030. For example, this can be accomplished with an XMLmetadata element that includes the name-like-string and the persistentidentifier. In addition, the name and its inclusion in the digitalresource is recorded in the N4L-CI database 14.

For those cases in which the name-like-string is not found in thedatabase, one or more of several actions occur 1035. One action is toidentify recognized names that are similar to the name-like-string andprepare an actionable code snippet and/or document fragment with a listof possible names, which are then made available to the End-User. Whilethe name selected from the list by the End-User may be recorded, thisusage is not deemed to be authoritative and is not stored in the N4L-CIdatabase 14. A second action is to store the unrecognizedname-like-string, along with the context in which it occurs, and to havean expert curator determine if the string is in fact a name. AnEnd-User's selection of a name from the list of possible names may beused by the curator to assist in determining the proper name to beassociated with the string. The determination made by the curator isdeemed authoritative, this authority is noted by the creation of a newrecord within the N4L-CI database 14, and future viewings of the webpage will include enhancements associated with the proper name.

One step in the N4L enablement process, as mentioned above, is theidentification of name-like-strings in the digital resource. FIG. 11provides a flowchart 1100, starting at 1105 and stopping at 1120,depicting the overall process for identifying the name-like-stringscontained within a digital resource. In one embodiment, this processconsists of two stages. First, an algorithm extracts 1110 from thedigital resource those strings that are thought to be names, see FIG.12. Second, the extracted strings are then subjected to verification1115, see FIG. 13.

As mentioned above, one method of identifying occurrences ofname-like-strings in a digital resource is to check each word in thetarget resource against a database of known name-like-strings, in a“brute-force” manner.

Other methods involve identifying name-like-strings based ontypographic, formatting, and/or stylistic conventions that are used whenreferring to name-like-strings, FIG. 12. For example, in formaltaxonomic writing, name-like strings can be recognized based on a seriesof typographic and stylistic conventions that serve as visual cues tohuman readers that are prescribed by the various Codes of Nomenclature.Biological names are generally Latinized, which by convention results inthese names appearing in italics at all taxonomic ranks for Bacteria andArchaea and for genera (plural of genus) and species for plants, fungi,yeasts, protists and animals. In some instances, names may also haverank-specific suffixes (e.g. -acea=family, -ineae=suborder, -ales=order,-idea=subclass).

In formal taxonomic proposals that include a prologue and a diagnosis(also referred to as a description or circumscription of the taxonomicconcept along with the name and its etymology), the Latinized nameappears in italics and is typically followed by an authority string (thename of the author(s) proposing the original taxonomic assertion, thedate, and possibly the page of the original published description. Ininstances where the name has undergone subsequent revision, the authorsof the latest revision and accompanying cues regarding the nature of therevision are also included in the authority string). The name-likestring may also contain information about the nomenclatural event andaccompanying taxonomic assertion by phrases such as “species novum”,“combinatio novum” in full or abbreviated form. Additional clues maygleaned from the name based on the suffix (family—aceae; suborder—ineae;order—ales; subclass—idea.

In normal usage, names appear in a less highly stylized format and mayexclude most of the supplementary information regarding the authorityfor the name. By convention, names may also appear in an abbreviatedform (e.g., Bacillus subtillis=B. subtillis). Formatting of the name initalics is, however, regularly preserved to indicate that the name hasstanding in the literature (and various databases). If the name appearsin upright text and is surrounded by quotation marks, it is deemed to bea name without formal standing in the taxonomic literature.

Discovery of name-like strings in digital content can be accomplished byexamining digital content for the presence of various tags or otherembedded processor instructions that are used to trigger a displaydevice, a printer, or a digital typesetting system to format aparticular portion of the text in italics. Name-like strings are thenexamined for additional known properties including the text immediatelyfollowing the string for the identity of the naming authority, thepresence of various modifiers indicating taxonomic rank and name status.As only a portion of strings appearing in italics are names, additionallogic based on the appropriate stylistic and typesetting conventions canbe added into the process of discovering other names and excludingincorrect names. Name-like strings are then compared to a database ofknown names with standing in the literature to determine whether or nota particular name-like string has previously been encountered, and thestring is flagged for expert curation if appropriate.

FIG. 13 provides a flowchart 1300, starting at 1305 and stopping at1340, depicting one embodiment of the Name Extraction process forbiological names. In the case of biological names, the names oftenappear italicized in text. For this reason, one embodiment of the nameextraction process is to identify and extract all italicized stringswithin the digital resource (page) 1310. This is simply done bysearching the resource for the tags which indicate that the text locatedbetween the tags is italicized.

Once the initial identification has been completed, a next step ofeliminating from future consideration known non-name strings isperformed 1315. For example, identification via typographic conventionmay result in the finding of the string “et al.” One embodiment forperforming this step is to filter the preliminary list against adictionary of italicized terms that appear frequently but are not names.The filtering process will remove many of these known non-names.

To each remaining item in the list of name-like-strings, a uniqueidentifier (such as a simple numeric index) is then created and assignedfor each phrase 1320. In one embodiment, these items are compiled into amessage (a new name verification request) 1325 that is sentasynchronously to the N4L server 1330 for verification. The server thenresponds asynchronously with a list of verified names with theirassociated DOI 1335.

FIG. 14 provides a flowchart 1400, starting at 1405 and stopping at1480, depicting one embodiment of the Name Verification process. When aname verification request is received 1410, each string in the list isexamined to ensure it conforms to the bacterial nomenclature format1415, e.g., “Xyz abcde” would be considered a possible full name and“Xyz. abcde” would be considered a possible abbreviated name, so bothare name-like strings. In regular expression terms, this would be theequivalent of “[A-Z][a-z]* [a-z]+” or “[A-Z][a-z]*. [a-z]+”. The list ofpotential names is then filtered against a second dictionary, to excludename-like strings that are known to be invalid 1415. Each name-likestring in the filtered list is examined and placed into one of twolists: 1) a list of full names, and 2) a list of abbreviated names, toseparate abbreviated names from full names 1420.

A loop 1425 is performed for each full name, the loop ending at 1450:Each name-like string in the list of full names is then looked up in theN4L database 1430. If the name is not found in the database, someadditional action is taken, as described above, e.g. the name is addedto a queue for expert curation, 1445. If the name is found in thedatabase, the DOI is returned, and the name/DOI pair is added to a listof verified names 1440.

After the list of full names has been processed, a loop 1455 isperformed for each abbreviated name, the loop ending at 1470. Eachname-like string in the list of abbreviated names is matched against thelist of verified names to determine if each abbreviated name matches aname in the verified name list 1460. For each name that the abbreviatedname matches in the list of verified names, the abbreviated name and itsmatching name's DOI is added to the verified name list 1465. Afterchecking each abbreviated name, the list of verified names and theirassociated DOI's are then returned to the client 1475.

FIG. 15 provides a flowchart 1500, starting at 1505 and stopping at1550, depicting a high-level overview of the database curation process.A loop is executed for each name-like string in the curation queue 1510,the loop ending at 1540. Each name-like string is examined by an expertcurator 1515 and it is determined whether the name-like string is valid1520. If the name-like string is determined to be invalid, it is addedto the Exclusion Dictionary 1525 and removed from the curation queue1545. If the name-like string is determined to be a valid name, thecurator adds the name and appropriate metadata to the database 1530, andassigns a new DOI 1535. The name is then removed from the curation queue1545.

One difficulty facing users of taxonomic data such as that beingoperated on by the currently disclosed invention, including for exampleresearchers and data curators (e.g. persons who execute the processdescribed in FIG. 15), is understanding the taxonomic and temporalrelationships between the information objects. In the case of biologicalnomenclature, these relationships arise due to events such as literatureevents (e.g. the publication of a naming Event), which result in thecreation of an object, the creation of a connection between objects, ora change in the status of an object.

It is known that humans best understand concepts when they are presentedvisually. Given the manner in which data are stored in a database or arepresented as lists, they are not easily amenable to human intuitiveunderstanding. Thus, for these types of data, two coupled visualizationswill assist the users' understanding of the data.

An embodiment of the first visualization method, shown in FIG. 16, is inthe form of a timeline, with nomenclatural events creating branches fromthe original name. This visualization does not contain the taxonomicrelationships. Instead, it is a chart of objects showing their statusand interconnections. The chart presents each name along with all of thenomenclatural events, such as effective publication date, validpublication date, corrections and new combinations. Each of these eventsis asserted by a literature reference and is stored in the N4L database.An automatically-generated timeline chart such as that shown in FIG. 16presents one or more objects using a visual indicator, which in FIG. 16is a horizontally-oriented bar. The visualization also showsrelationships among the objects and between the objects and the timelineusing dashed lines and arrows. Nevertheless, other visual depictions ofthe temporal relationships of the objects can also be employed. Inaddition, the terms ‘horizontal’ and ‘vertical’ are arbitrarydistinctions which used for convenience in the present discussion, e.g.the axes and data shown in FIG. 16 could be reversed such that thetimeline is vertically oriented.

In this embodiment, the temporality of the events is shown using thetimeline along the horizontal (time-based) axis. The temporal divisions(time points) may be evenly spaced or, alternatively, may be compressedor expanded at various points to provide more even spacing of dates andevents or for other considerations. The objects in this visualizationcan be vertically arranged in order to group together like species orfor other considerations, or the vertical arrangement of the objects maybe arbitrary. Several vertical orderings of the objects, any of whichcan be selected by the user when the diagram is being generated, includealphabetical by name, chronological by date of first usage, andminimization of crossing lines.

FIG. 17 presents the same visualization as FIG. 16 with the addition ofa second visual indicator such as a thick line, which in one embodimentcan be colored to more readily differentiate it from the background.This visual indicator (line) indicates the preferred name at any giventime, e.g. the name preferred by experts in the field. There can only beone preferred name per exemplar at any given time. This line isconceptually similar to a critical path through a Gantt chart. Othermethods of identifying the preferred name as a function of time can alsobe employed, for example by altering the color or shading of the bars orby other appropriate markings.

In one embodiment, the computer interface allows a user to pick a pointin time at which a taxonomic view is desired, as shown in FIG. 18, byobtaining a selected date from the user, i.e. obtaining from the userthe location of a line crossing the time-based axis. A taxonomy diagramis rendered from a single vertical ‘slice’ of this diagram (line19-19′), representing a snapshot of the nomenclature at a specific pointin time. In various embodiments, the user can select the point in timefor producing the taxonomy diagram using any of a number of mechanismsto select a position on the timeline, e.g. by clicking with a mouse orother pointer, sliding a pointer along the timeline, or typing in adate, to name a few possibilities.

The taxonomy visualization, as shown in FIG. 19, presents a snapshot ata given point in time of all related names and illustrates some of thenomenclatural and taxonomic connections between them. This figure, whichwas rendered from the underlying N4L database, shows a snapshot of thenomenclature related to Streptoverticillium and Streptomyces fromNovember 2009. By changing the location of where the vertical line19-19′ crosses the timeline axis in FIG. 18, a taxonomic visualizationcan be produced for other time points.

With these two visualization methods, a user can better understand therelationships between the information objects and how theserelationships change over time. One embodiment of a method 2000 tocreate these visualizations, using the domain of biological nomenclatureas an example, is shown in FIG. 20.

The method 2000 begins at start 2005 with the user selecting both a nameobject and a method of ordering (ordering basis) 2010. The N4L databaseis searched and related name objects are retrieved 2015. Relatedness ofname objects may be determined in various ways, for example as describedby Garrity et al. (US Pat. Appl. Publ. No. 2005/0160059). An ordered,in-memory list is created of all related name objects in the N4Ldatabase, which includes various items of time-based publicationinformation including, at a minimum, the publication date of the nameobject, and the date and type of other key events, such as corrections,change in status, etc. Starting with the selected name object, andlooping through all name objects in the list 2020, time-basedpublication information is extracted 2025 from the selected name objectand all related name objects identified in the N4L database. Using themethod of ordering (ordering basis) selected by the user, the nameobjects are sorted into a list order, where the list order is used todetermine a relative arrangement of the name objects. Next, a visualindicator such as a bar is created and placed onto the drawing field2030. The horizontal position of the bar is determined by thepublication date extracted in step 2025 and the vertical position isbased on the list order. Next, the bar is shaded and arrows are added toindicate the timing and type of the literature events 2035. This processcontinues until all names in the list have been processed, at whichpoint the loop ends 2040 and the method stops 2045. The result is thatan output image such as those shown in FIGS. 16-18 is generated. In theexamples shown in FIGS. 16-18, the output images are graphs includingthe selected name object and the related objects retrieved from the N4Ldatabase. The graphs include a time-based axis, such that each of theobjects is represented on the graph by a first visual indicator whichdepicts the time-based publication information extracted for eachrespective name object. In various embodiments the output image ispresented to the user using an output device, for example a computerscreen or a printer.

FIG. 21 presents an embodiment of a method 2100 for creating a taxonomyvisualization such as that shown in FIG. 19, which is generated inresponse to a user selecting a date defining a point in time, e.g. byidentifying the position of the vertical line, as shown for example inFIG. 18. The vertical line in FIG. 18 intersects all objects in thesystem at the selected point in time, allowing for the creation of aview containing the set of intersected objects and their state at thespecified time. This embodiment describes a case wherein the nameobjects are biological species, however, the name objects can be of anytype previously disclosed. Associated with each object is a taxonomicrank, for example a subspecies, a species, a subgenus, a genus, afamily, a tribe, a suborder, an order, a division, a subclass, a class,a subphylum, a phylum, a superphylum, a kingdom, or a domain. Asdiscussed below, the taxonomic rank may be used to form sublists of theobjects.

The method 2100 starts 2105 by obtaining a user-selected name object andmethod of ordering 2110 and finding and retrieving related objects fromthe N4L database 2115 to produce an ordered, in-memory list of allrelated names. The next step is to loop through the ordered, in-memorylist of all related names 2120 to determine which ones were in existenceas of the date corresponding to the vertical line, i.e. as of theselected date obtained from the user 2125. Next, a number of sublistsare formed or created 2130 based on, e.g., the taxonomic ranksassociated with the objects, after which this initial loop ends 2140. Inthe illustrated example, each sublist contains the names of a singlegenus, as can be seen in the two ‘columns’ of names shown in FIG. 19.Starting with the sublist which contains the name originally selected bythe user, the names are placed into the drawing field 2145. Once thefirst list is completed, the remaining lists are looped through 2150 andsorted according to taxonomic rank, as above, and names from thesublists are placed onto the drawing field 2155. To facilitateunderstanding, the subsequent lists may be ordered to align relatednames in the subsequent sublists with the names from the first sublist.

Next, visual indicators such as arrows are drawn to shown synonym eventsand new combination events 2160. These horizontally-drawn arrowscorrespond to the dashed vertical lines shown in FIGS. 17 and 18. Thearrows may be optionally labeled with an identifier to indicate theassociated literature event. After the loop ends 2165, the method stops2170.

Various known methods can be used to create the visualization on acomputer system in accordance with the embodiments disclosed herein. Onesuch method for transforming the data into a graphical representationemploys the Java programming language and is presented within thecontext of a web browser, although other methods can be used as well.One or more visualization figures can be displayed in a single window orin multiple windows.

Additional meta information and inferences about the data can bedetermined using certain aspects of the current invention. As describedabove, each time a name-like-string in a digital resource is found inthe N4L database 14, a record of that name's (information object's)presence in the digital resource is noted in the N4L-CI database 14.Other information, such as the number of times the name (informationobject) occurs in a digital resource and/or the number of times aninformation object is accessed, can also be stored in the N4L-CIdatabase 14. By acting on the data stored in the N4L-CI database 14,additional information can be extracted.

Tracking the number of times an information object is accessed can beuseful for certain end-users. To compile these data, a computer processcan count the number of requests being made for all names (informationobjects). Each time a N4L-enabled page is loaded, requests forN4L-enhancement for each identified name in the digital resource aresent to the N4L Server 12, which provides the means for performing thecount. This count can include the number of requests ever made for thename or the number of requests which have been made in some period oftime. This information can be used to calculate the average number (andstandard deviation) of requests per time period for each name. Shouldthe average count value for a name (or a group of closely related namesper the network described above) change significantly, this change canbe noted. In one embodiment, “change significantly” means a differencewhich is greater than three-tenths of a standard deviation, althoughother levels of change are also possible. Examples of responses tochanges in name request frequency include notifying one or more BRCsthat there may be additional demand for a specific item, notifying oneof more suppliers of reagents that there may be additional demand for aspecific item, and notifying law enforcement agencies of changingpatterns.

Examples of inferences which can be extracted from the data stored inthe N4L-CI database 14 include identifying publications focused onsimilar topics, identifying authors working in similar fields, anddiscovering heretofore unrecognized relationships between objects. Whilethere are numerous methods known in the art for extracting suchinferences, in one embodiment, the first step is to create a graph whichlinks all of the digital resources stored within the N4L-CI database 14to each other using a distance metric. This is done by calculating adistance metric for each pair of digital resources in the N4L-CIdatabase 14. The distance metric is a numerical value calculated by amathematical formula which determines the proximity, or relatedness, ofthe digital resources to each other based on the number and strength ofshared concepts. A distance metric may produce either smaller or largervalues to indicate closer proximity, i.e., that the two digitalresources are more closely related to each other. Graph analysistechniques, which use either smaller or larger values to indicate closerproximity, are known in the art.

The following are examples of distance metrics, but this method is notlimited by these embodiments.

In one class of metrics, so-called symmetric metrics, the distance fromdigital resource 1 to digital resource 2 is the same as the distancefrom digital resource 2 to digital resource 1. Such a metric can becalculated by counting the number of names (information objects) sharedby the two digital resources divided by the total number of unique namesthat appear in both digital resources. Given S1, the set of all names indigital resource 1, and S2, the set of all names in digital resource 2,then an example distance metric is given by:

$d = \frac{{S_{1}\bigcap S_{2}}}{{S_{1}\bigcup S_{2}}}$

An example of the use of this distance metric is graphically depicted inFIG. 22. The N4L CI 14 database is comprised of six digital resources,each with some number of names 2205 (FIG. 22A). Using the abovealgorithm, the distance between each of the digital resources iscalculated and displayed in tabular form 2210 (FIG. 22B). For purposesof visualization, the tabulated distances can be represented as a graph,in which the line between nodes shows the strength of the relationshipbetween the digital resources, 2215 (FIG. 22C).

Another possible symmetric metric is the summation of the number oftimes a name appears in both digital resources divided by the totalnumber of name instances in both digital objects. Another possibledistance metric is based on the mutual occurrence of uncommon names,where “uncommon” is defined in one embodiment as “occurring in less than1% of all digital resources in the N4L-CI database”.

In another class of metrics, so-called asymmetric metrics, the distancefrom digital resource 1 to digital resource 2 is potentially differentfrom the distance from digital resource 2 to digital resource 1. Such ametric can be calculated by counting of the number of names (informationobjects) shared by the two digital resources. Then, the distance fromdigital resource 1 to digital resource 2 is given by the number ofshared names divided by the total number of unique names in digitalresource 1; and the distance from digital resource 2 to digital resource1 is given by the number of shared names divided by the total number ofunique names in digital resource 2:

${d_{1->2} = \frac{{S_{1}\bigcap S_{2}}}{S_{1}}},{d_{2->1} = \frac{{S_{2}\bigcap S_{1}}}{S_{2}}}$

Once the graph is built, any of a variety of algorithms known to thoseof ordinary skill, can be used to analyze it. For example, a clusteringalgorithm, such as that by Zahn (Zahn, C. T. (1971) “Graph-theoreticalmethods for detecting and describing Gestalt clusters,” IEEETransactions on Computers, C 20, 68-86), can be used to identify groupsof articles which address similar subject matter. For the example shownin FIG. 22, such an algorithm would identify two distinct clusters ofdigital resources. This functionality could be monetized by offering toprovide to users references to these other digital resources, therebysaving them from having to review them. Using the Practitioner fieldstored in an information object, a clustering algorithm could alsoidentify researchers who are working in similar fields (i.e. the‘discovery of research networks’). This information is of value forresearchers (to identify potential collaborators and/or competitors),employment agencies, and other individuals or entities. These are buttwo illustrative examples of how the graph can be used to extractmetadata from the system.

In various embodiments, the present invention is implemented on one ormore computers 10, 12, 14, 16, 32, and 38, see FIGS. 1, 2, and 4. Inthose embodiments in which more than one computer is used, the computersmay be in operative communication with one another through a variety ofwired or wireless mechanisms, or through physical transfer ofcomputer-readable media among the computers. The computers may be incommunication via a local-area network (LAN) and/or via the Internet orother large-scale computer network. As shown in FIG. 23, each computer120 may have an input device 140, an output device 160, a storage medium180, and a processor 200. Possible input devices 140 include a keyboard,a computer mouse, a touch screen, and the like. Output devices 160include a cathode-ray tube (CRT) computer monitor, a liquid-crystaldisplay (LCD) computer monitor, printer, and the like. Storage media 180include various types of memory such as a hard disk, RAM, flash memory,and other magnetic, optical, physical, or electronic memory devices,whether fixed or removable. The processor 200 is any computer processorcapable of performing calculations and directing other functions forperforming input, output, calculation, and display of data in thedisclosed invention. Various embodiments of the invention areimplemented as a set of instructions and data that are stored on thestorage media 180 of one or more computers. In various embodiments, oneor more steps of the claimed methods may be executed using the processor200. In various embodiments, the invention may include a computerprogram product including a computer usable medium (e.g. storage media180 as described above) having a computer readable program code embodiedthereon, where the computer readable program code is adapted to beexecuted (e.g. using a processor 200) to implement methods of theinvention.

In various embodiments, the present invention can be used in conjunctionwith a database such as that described by Garrity et al. (US Pat. Appl.Publ. No. 2005/0160059).

While certain representative embodiments and details have been shown forpurposes of illustrating the invention, it will be apparent to thoseskilled in the art that various changes may be made without departingfrom the scope of the disclosure, which is further described in thefollowing appended claims.

1. A method for adding tags to a first digital resource, the methodcomprising: creating a second digital resource which comprises thecontent of the first digital resource; finding within said seconddigital resource at least one occurrence of a name-like-string, whereinsaid name-like-string is contained within a database, said databaserelates said name-like-string to other name-like-strings by means of ataxonomic structure based on rules of nomenclature, and said database isexpertly curated; obtaining from said database for said name-like-stringa globally unique identifier associated with said string; and insertinga tag with said identifier into said second digital resource.
 2. Themethod of claim 1, wherein said identifier is at least one of a DigitalObject Identifier (DOI), a Handle, a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI)or a Uniform Resource Name (URN), an Archival Resource Key (ARK), aPersistent Uniform Resource Locator (PURL), a Universal UniqueIdentifier (UUID), a Globally Unique Identifier (GUID), and a LifeSciences Identifier (LSID).
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein saiddigital resource includes a computer-storable item selected from thegroup consisting of: scientific, technical, and medical (STM)literature, patents, Biological Resource Center (BRC) databases, legalliterature, diagnostic machinery databases, contracts, treaties,material transfer agreements, prior informed consent agreements,certificates of origin, other documents establishing provenance, billsof lading, shipping documents, specification sheets, interactivegraphics, and regulations or laws as applied to holding, transportation,or working with an organism.
 4. A system configured to carry out themethod of claim 1, wherein the system comprises a plurality ofcomputers, each with software, with the computers communicating via anelectronic medium and each performing part of the overall process.
 5. Amethod for adding a tag to a digital resource, the method comprising:finding within said digital resource at least one occurrence of aname-like-string, wherein said name-like-string is contained within adatabase, said database relates said name-like-string to othername-like-strings by means of a taxonomic structure based on rules ofnomenclature, and said database is expertly curated; obtaining from saiddatabase a globally unique identifier with said name-like-string; andmodifying said digital resource by inserting a tag with said identifier.6. The method of claim 5, wherein said identifier is at least one of aDigital Object Identifier (DOI), a Handle, a Uniform Resource Identifier(URI) or a Uniform Resource Name (URN), an Archival Resource Key (ARK),a Persistent Uniform Resource Locator (PURL), a Universal UniqueIdentifier (UUID), a Globally Unique Identifier (GUID), and a LifeSciences Identifier (LSID).
 7. The method of claim 5, wherein saiddigital resource includes a computer-storable item selected from thegroup consisting of: scientific, technical, and medical (STM)literature, patents, Biological Resource Center (BRC) databases, legalliterature, diagnostic machinery databases, contracts, treaties,material transfer agreements, prior informed consent, certificates oforigin, other documents establishing provenance, bills of lading,shipping documents, specification sheets, interactive graphics, andregulations or laws as applied to holding, transportation, or workingwith an organism.
 8. A system configured to carry out the method ofclaim 5, wherein the system comprises a plurality of computers, eachwith software, with the computers communicating via an electronic mediumand each performing part of the overall process.
 9. The system of claim8, wherein the digital resource is transmitted in its entirety from afirst computer to a second computer for processing.
 10. The system ofclaim 8, wherein only the name-like-string found within the digitalresource is sent from a first computer to a second computer forprocessing.
 11. A method for adding content to a database ofname-like-strings, the method comprising: finding within a digitalresource at least one occurrence of a name-like-string, wherein saidname-like-string is not contained within said database, said databaserelates said name-like-strings to other name-like-strings by means of ataxonomic structure based on rules of nomenclature, and said database isexpertly curated; having an expert ensure that said name-like-string isin fact a valid name; and creating a new record within said databasecomprising said name-like-string, a content identifier, and namedrelations to other name-like-strings already within said database. 12.The method of claim 11, wherein said content identifier is at least oneof a Digital Object Identifier (DOI), a Handle, a Uniform ResourceIdentifier (URI) or a Uniform Resource Name (URN), an Archival ResourceKey (ARK), a Persistent Uniform Resource Locator (PURL), a UniversalUnique Identifier (UUID), a Globally Unique Identifier (GUID), and aLife Sciences Identifier (LSID).
 13. The method of claim 11, whereinsaid digital resource includes a computer-storable item selected fromthe group consisting of: scientific, technical, and medical (STM)literature, patents, Biological Resource Center (BRC) databases, legalliterature, diagnostic machinery databases, contracts, treaties,material transfer agreements, prior informed consent, certificates oforigin, other documents establishing provenance, bills of lading,shipping documents, specification sheets, interactive graphics, andregulations or laws as applied to holding, transportation, or workingwith an organism.
 14. A system configured to carry out the method ofclaim 11, wherein the system comprises a plurality of computers, eachwith software, with the computers communicating via an electronic mediumand each performing part of the overall process.
 15. A method forproviding information and services to End-Users from digital contenthaving at least one content identifier embedded therein, the methodcomprising: accessing an expertly curated database which relatesname-like-strings to other name-like-strings by means of a taxonomicstructure based on rules of nomenclature and using said contentidentifier to obtain information about a related name-like-stringexisting in said digital content; accessing a database which associatesname-like-strings to services and information and using said contentidentifier to obtain said services and information about said relatedname-like-string existing in said digital content; displayinginformation; and providing a means for a user to select from theinformation displayed.
 16. A system configured to carry out the methodof claim 15, wherein the system comprises a plurality of computers, eachwith software, with the computers communicating via an electronic mediumand each performing part of the overall process.
 17. A computer programproduct, comprising a computer usable medium having a computer readableprogram code embodied therein, said computer readable program codeadapted to be executed to implement a method for adding tags to a firstdigital resource, said method comprising: creating a second digitalresource which comprises the content of the first digital resource;finding within said second digital resource at least one occurrence of aname-like-string, wherein said name-like-string is contained within adatabase, said database relates said name-like-string to othername-like-strings by means of a taxonomic structure based on rules ofnomenclature, and said database is expertly curated; obtaining from saiddatabase for said name-like-string a globally unique identifierassociated with said string; and inserting a tag with said identifierinto said second digital resource.
 18. A computer program product,comprising a computer usable medium having a computer readable programcode embodied therein, said computer readable program code adapted to beexecuted to implement a method for adding a tag to a digital resource,said method comprising finding within said digital resource at least oneoccurrence of a name-like-string, wherein said name-like-string iscontained within a database, said database relates said name-like-stringto other name-like-strings by means of a taxonomic structure based onrules of nomenclature, and said database is expertly curated; obtainingfrom said database a globally unique identifier uniquely associated withsaid name-like-string; and modifying said digital resource by insertinga tag with said identifier.
 19. A computer program product, comprising acomputer usable medium having a computer readable program code embodiedtherein, said computer readable program code adapted to be executed toimplement a method for adding content to a database ofname-like-strings, said method comprising finding within a digitalresource at least one occurrence of a name-like-string, wherein saidname-like-string is not contained within said database, said databaserelates said name-like-strings to other name-like-strings by means of ataxonomic structure based on rules of nomenclature, and said database isexpertly curated; having an expert ensure that said name-like-string isin fact a valid name; and creating a new record within said databasecomprising said name-like-string, a content identifier, and namedrelations to other name-like-strings already within said database.
 20. Acomputer program product, comprising a computer usable medium having acomputer readable program code embodied therein, said computer readableprogram code adapted to be executed to implement a method for providinginformation and services to End-Users from digital content having atleast one content identifier embedded therein, said method comprisingaccessing an expertly curated database which relates name-like-stringsto other name-like-strings by means of a taxonomic structure based onrules of nomenclature and using said content identifier to obtaininformation about a related name-like-string existing in said digitalcontent; accessing a database which associates name-like-strings toservices and information and using said content identifier to obtainsaid services and information about said related name-like-stringexisting in said digital content; displaying information; and providinga means for a user to select from the information displayed.
 21. Amethod for building a graph relating digital resources, comprisingcalculating a distance between two digital resources using amathematical formula that is based upon the number of occurrences of aname in each of the digital resources.
 22. A method of discoveringmeta-information based on the application of a clustering algorithm tothe network of claim
 21. 23. A method for tracking a number ofoccurrences of a name-like-string in a digital resource, comprising:counting a first number of occurrences of the name-like-string in adigital resource for a first time period; and calculating a firstaverage and a first standard deviation of the first number ofoccurrences for the first time period.
 24. The method of claim 23,further comprising counting a second number of occurrences of thename-like-string in a digital resource for a second time period;calculating a second average and a second standard deviation of thenumber of occurrences for the second time period; comparing one of thefirst number of occurrences to the second number of occurrences, thefirst average to the second average, and the first standard deviation tothe second standard deviation and determining if a change has occurred;and notifying a party if a change has occurred.
 25. The method of claim24, wherein the party is a reagent supplier or a law enforcement agency.26. A method for generating a visualization of taxonomic data,comprising: obtaining a selected name object and an ordering basis froma user; searching a database for name objects related to the selectedname object; retrieving one or more related name objects from thedatabase; extracting time-based publication information for the selectedname object and each of the one or more related name objects retrievedfrom the database; determining a relative arrangement of the selectedname object and the one or more related name objects retrieved from thedatabase using the ordering basis obtained from the user, therebyproducing an ordered list of name objects; generating a first outputimage comprising a graph, the graph including the selected name objectand the one or more related name objects retrieved from the database,the graph further including a time-based axis, such that each of theselected and related name objects is represented on the graph by a firstvisual indicator which depicts the time-based publication informationextracted for each respective name object; and presenting the firstoutput image to the user.
 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the timepoints are evenly spaced along the time-based axis.
 28. The method ofclaim 26, wherein at least one of the first visual indicators is arectangular bar.
 29. The method of claim 26, wherein the time-basedpublication information comprises one or more of an effectivepublication date, a valid publication date, a correction, and a newcombination.
 30. The method of claim 26, wherein generating the firstoutput image further comprises associating a second visual indicatorwith one or more of the first visual indicators, such that the presenceof the second visual indicator indicates whether the name objectassociated with the first visual indicator was a preferred name for thename object at one or more time points.
 31. The method of claim 26,wherein the ordering basis is at least one of alphabetical by name,chronological by date of first usage, and minimization of crossinglines.
 32. The method of claim 26, wherein generating the first outputimage further comprises positioning one or more arrows adjacent to oneor more of the first visual indicators to indicate taxonomicrelationships between the associated name objects.
 33. The method ofclaim 26, wherein each name object has a taxonomic rank associatedtherewith.
 34. The method of claim 33, further comprising: obtaining aselected date from the user; for each name object in the ordered list ofname objects, determining whether the name object was in existence on orbefore the selected date; for those name objects which were in existenceon or before the selected date, forming one or more sublists of nameobjects such that all of the name objects in a sublist have the sametaxonomic rank associated therewith; generating a second output image bylocating a text string associated with each of the name objects in eachof the sublists on the second output image and locating one or morearrows between the text strings to indicate taxonomic relationshipsbetween the associated name objects; and presenting the second outputimage to the user.
 35. The method of claim 34, wherein obtaining aselected date from the user comprises obtaining from the user thelocation of a line crossing the time-based axis.
 36. The method of claim34, wherein the taxonomic rank is a subspecies, a species, a subgenus, agenus, a family, a tribe, a suborder, an order, a division, a subclass,a class, a subphylum, a phylum, a superphylum, a kingdom, or a domain.37. The method of claim 34, wherein the taxonomic rank is a genus.